Priority 1: Genetic engineering steps

1. Identify and cut the desired gene from the donor organism using restriction enzymes. 2. Insert the gene into a vector (usually a bacterial plasmid) using ligase enzyme. 3. Transfer the vector into the host organism (e.g. Bacterium). 4. The host organism expresses the gene and produces the desired protein.

Key example: production of human insulin by bacteria.

Priority 2: Fermentation and bioreactors

Microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, fungi) are grown in bioreactors (fermenters) to produce useful products: antibiotics (penicillin from Penicillium), insulin (from GM bacteria), bread and alcohol (from yeast fermentation). Conditions are carefully controlled: temperature, pH, nutrient supply, oxygen, and waste removal.

Priority 3: Cloning and ethics

Cloning produces genetically identical organisms. Plant cloning (tissue culture / micropropagation) is widely used in agriculture. Animal cloning is more controversial. Ethical concerns about genetic engineering include: safety of GM foods, ecological risks, inequality of access, and the question of whether we should modify living organisms.